Internal Combustion Engines Essay Paper Example For Students

Internal Combustion Engines Essay Paper Internal Combustion EnginesAn internal-combustion engine is a heat engine that burns fuel and airinside a combustion chamber located within the engine proper. Simply stated, aheat engine is an engine that converts heat energy to mechanical energy. Theinternal- combustion engine should be distinguished from the external-combustion engine, for example, the steam engine and the Stirling engine, whichburns fuel outside the prime mover, that is, the device that actually producesmechanical motion. Both basic types produce hot, expanding gases, which may thenbe employed to move pistons, turn turbine rotors, or cause locomotion throughthe reaction principle as they escape through the nozzle. Most people are familiar with the internal-combustion reciprocating engine,which is used to power most automobiles, boats, lawn mowers, and home generators. Based on the means of ignition, two types of internal-combustion reciprocatingengines can be distinguished: spark-ignition engines and compression-ignitionengines. In the former, a spark ignites a combustible mixture of air and fuel;in the latter, high compression raises the temperature of the air in the chamberand ignites the injected fuel without a spark. The diesel engine is acompression-ignition engine. This article emphasizes the spark-ignition engine. The invention and early development of internal-combustion engines areusually credited to three Germans. Nikolaus Otto patented and built (1876) thefirst such engine; Karl Benz built the first automobile to be powered by such anengine (1885); and Gottlieb Daimler designed the first high-speed internal-combustion engine (1885) and carburetor. Rudolf Diesel invented a successfulcompression-ignition engine (the diesel engine) in 1892. The operation of the internal-combustion reciprocating engine employseither a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle. A stroke is one continuousmovement of the piston within the cylinder. In the four-stroke cycle, also known as the Otto cycle, the downwardmovement of a piston located within a cylinder creates a partial vacuum. Valveslocated inside the combustion chamber are controlled by the motion of a camshaftconnected to the crankshaft. The four strokes are called, in order of sequence,intake, compression, power, and exhaust. On the first stroke the intake valve isopened while the exhaust valve is closed; atmospheric pressure forces a mixtureof gas and air to fill the chamber. On the second stroke the intake and exhaustvalves are both closed as the piston starts upward. The mixture is compressedfrom normal atmospheric pressure (1 kg/sq cm, or 14.7 lb/sq in) to between 4.9and 8.8 kg/sq cm (70 and 125 lb/sq in). During the third stroke the compressedmixture is ignitedeither by compression ignition or by spark ignition. Theheat produced by the combustion causes the gases to expand within the cylinder,thus forcing the piston downward. The pistons connecting rod transmi ts thepower from the piston to the crankshaft. This assembly changes reciprocatinginother words, up-and-down or back-and-forth motionto rotary motion. On thefourth stroke the exhaust valve is opened so that the burned gases can escape asthe piston moves upward; this prepares the cylinder for another cycle. Internal-combustion spark-ignition engines having a two-stroke cycle combineintake and compression in a single first stroke and power and exhaust in asecond stroke. The internal-combustion reciprocating engine contains several subsystems:ignition, fuel, cooling, and exhaust systems. The ignition system of a spark-ignition engine consists of the sparkingdevice (the spark plug); the connecting wire from the plug to the distributor;and the distributor, which distributes the spark to the proper cylinder at theproper time. The distributor receives a high-energy spark from a coil, ormagneto, that converts low-voltage energy to high-voltage energy. Some ignitionsystems employ transistorized circuitry, which is generally more efficient andless troublesome than the mechanical breaker-point system used in the past. Mostignition systems require an external electrical energy source in the form of abattery or a magneto. .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 , .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .postImageUrl , .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 , .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:hover , .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:visited , .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:active { border:0!important; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:active , .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63 .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ube36ef24bbd83f5eeac8c371cba37e63:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Philosophy of Religion EssaySpark-ignition engines require a means for mixing fuel and air. This may beeither a carburetor or fuel injection. A carburetor atomizes the fuel into theengines incoming air supply. The mixture is then vaporized in the intakemanifold on its way to the combustion chamber. fuel injection sprays acontrolled mist of fuel into the airstream, either in the intake manifold orjust before the intake valve or valves of each cylinder. Both carburetors andfuel injectors maintain the correct fuel- to-air ratio, about one part fuel tofifteen parts air, over a wide range of air temperatures, engine speeds, andloads. Fuel injection can compensate for change s in altitude as well. Internal-combustion engines require some type of starting system. Smallengines are generally started by pulling a starting rope or kicking a lever. Larger engines may use compressed air or an electric starting system. The latterincludes a startera high-torque electric motorto turn the crankshaft untilthe engine starts. Starting motors are extremely powerful for their size and aredesigned to utilize high currents (200 to 300 amperes). The large startingcurrents can cause a battery to drain rapidly; for this reason a heavy- dutybattery is usually used. Interrupting this connection is an electrical switchcalled a solenoid, which is activated by the low- voltage starting switch. Inthis way the ignition switch can be located away from the starter and yet stillturn the starter on and off. The cooling system is important because internal-combustion engines operateat high temperatures of combustionspark- ignition engines at approximately2,760 degrees C (5,000 degrees F) and diesel engines at even higher temperatures. If it were not for the cooling system, these high temperatures would damage andmelt many parts of the engine. The cooling system essentially dissipates theheat of combustion in metal, water, or air and automatically regulates thetemperature so that the engine can operate at its optimum temperatureabout 93degrees C (200 degrees F). Air-cooled engines, popularly used to power small lawn mowers, chain saws,power generators, and motorcycles, as well as small cars and airplanes, oftenrequire no moving parts, and therefore little or no maintenance, for the coolingsystem. The head, or uppermost part, of the cylinder and the cylinder block havefins cast into them; these fins increase the surface exposed to the surroundingair, allowing more heat to be radiated. Usually a cover or shroud channels theair flow over the fins. A fan is sometimes included if the engine is locatedaway from a stream of fast-moving air. Water-cooled engines have water jackets built into the engine block. Thesejackets surround the cylinders. Usually a centrifugal water pump is used tocirculate the water continuously through the water jackets. In this way the highheat of combustion is drawn off the cylinder wall into the circulating water. The water must then be cooled in a radiator that transfers the heat energy ofthe water to the radiators cooler surrounding fluid. The surrounding fluid canbe air or water, depending on the application of the engine. Internal-combustion engines include an exhaust system, which allows the hotexhaust gases to escape efficiently from the engine. In some small engines theexhaust gases can exit directly into the atmosphere. Larger engines are noisierand require some type of muffler or sound deadener, usually a canister with aninner shell that breaks up the sound waves, dissipating their energy within themuffler before the exhaust gases are permitted to escape. The power capacity of an engine depends on a number of characteristics,including the volume of the combustion chamber. The volume can be increased byincreasing the size of the piston and cylinder and by increasing the number ofcylinders. The cylinder configuration, or arrangement of cylinders, can bestraight, or in-line (one cylinder located behind the other); radial (cylinderslocated around a circle); in a V (cylinders located in a V configuration); oropposed (cylinders located opposite each other). Another type of internal-combustion engine, the Wankel engine, has no cylinders; instead, it has a rotorthat moves through a combustion chamber. .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 , .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .postImageUrl , .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 , .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:hover , .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:visited , .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:active { border:0!important; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:active , .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8 .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u71cd9997fce933502ad902f2827a61d8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Salem witch trials1 EssayAn internal-combustion engine must also have some kind of transmissionsystem to control and direct the mechanical energy where it is needed; forexample, in an automobile the energy must be directed to the driving wheels. Since these engines are not able to start under a load, a transmission systemmust be used to disengage the engine from the load during starting and then toapply the load when the engine reaches its operating speed.

Adhd Medications Versus Side Effects free essay sample

According to â€Å"ADHD is a problem† (2010), â€Å"ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed behavioral disorder of childhood. It affects about 3% 5% of school aged children. † In 2010 the World Health Organization (WHO) conducted a study that estimated that 3% to 4% of adults have ADHD. Of these it is estimated that between 8 and 10 million are undiagnosed, with millions more not receiving treatment (Van Pelt, 2010). Paul Lichtenstein of Swedens Karolinska Institute stated Its said that roughly 30 to 40 per cent of long-serving criminals have ADHD. † (Kelland, 2012). These statistics illustrate how severely ADHD can affect subject’s lives. Many are concerned about the side effects that come with taking stimulant medications used to treat ADHD. ADHD medications do indeed have side effects; however, the advantages of treatment generally outweigh the disadvantages of negative side effects. This can be seen by examining the symptoms associated with ADHD, and comparing them to the side effects of stimulant medication. Also examining the various ways in which the side effects can be dealt with. We will write a custom essay sample on Adhd Medications Versus Side Effects or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There are many symptoms linked with ADHD, these symptoms fall into three categories and can be used to diagnose this disorder. The first category is inattentiveness, or lack of attention, symptoms in this category, as implied, deal with the subject’s inability to focus. Examples of these symptoms are; 1) subject fails to give close attention to details, makes careless mistakes, and is often forgetful with regard to daily activities. ) Subject does not follow through with instructions, or can be easily distracted, resulting in failing to finish school work, chores, or duties in the workplace. 3) Subject does not seem to listen when spoken to directly. 4) Subject can have difficulty with organization of tasks and activities, often losing assignments or tools needed for tasks. The second category is hyperactivity; these symptoms can be seen in the actions of the subject. Examples of these symptoms are; 1) Subject fidgets with hands or feet, or squirms in their seat. ) Subject runs about or climbs in inappropriate situations, or leaves seat when remaining seated is expected. 3) Subject has difficulty playing quietly, often having an overabundance of energy, and tends to talk excessively. The third category of symptoms is impulsivity, or impulsive behavior, these symptoms seem to be combinations of the first two categories. Examples of these symptoms are; 1) Subject blurts out answers before questions have been completed. 2) Subject has difficulty awaiting their turn. ) Subject interrupts or intrudes upon others conversations (â€Å"ADHD is a problem†, 2012). Observation of combinations of these symptoms can lead to the diagnosis of ADHD. There are several different prescription medications used to treat ADHD in both children and adults. Prescription medications used for this treatment are generally stimulants, and are controlled substances. The five stimulant medications used for this treatment are; 1) Amphetamine-dextroamphetamine, otherwise known as Adderall. ) Dexmethylphenidate, otherwise known as Focalin. 3) Dextroamphetamine, otherwise known as Dexedrine, and Dextrostat. 4) Lisdexamfetamine, otherwise known as Vyvanse. 5) Methylphenidate, otherwise known as Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate, and Daytrana. There is a nonstimulant medication available called Atomoxetine, commonly called Strattera (â€Å"ADHD is a problem†, 2012). Stimulant medications used for ADHD cause increased levels of neurotransmitters, specifically Dopamine, and Norepinephrine within the prefrontal cortex (Arnsten, 2006). The levels of these two neurotransmitters are thought to be lower in children and adults with ADHD. The stimulant medications used for treatment of ADHD increase the production of these two neurotransmitters in order to reach normal levels within the subjects brain chemistry (Santa Maria, 12/30/11). It has been found that the best results from treatment included behavioral therapy, such as having a set schedule, eating a well balanced diet, limiting distractions in study and work areas, and getting enough sleep (â€Å"ADHD is a problem†, 2012). Behavior therapy combined with medication seems to provide the best results, allowing the subject to build upon the effects of the medication, and create a routine. There are many possible side effects included with these medications, some of these are rarer than others, while others still have positive effects. Many of the side effects that come with stimulant treatment are common and mild. One such side effect is trouble sleeping, the stimulant aspects of the drugs can make it hard to fall asleep. Loss of appetite is another common side effect. The stimulant medication tends to reduce appetite, and can cause weight loss. Weight loss is one side effect that people tend to like, however weight loss tends to be modest and the effects diminish over time (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). Dry mouth is another very common side effect. These first three side effects seem to be almost ensured when taking ADHD medication. Other side effects that, while still common and generally mild, are not guaranteed consist of headaches, nausea, dizziness, irritability and mood changes, and occasionally tics. The medications do not cause tics, instead they can sometimes bring underlying tics out, for example a tic from childhood may return (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). There are more severe side effects associated with the use of ADHD stimulant treatment, however these are much more rare, or case sensitive. For example, stimulant medication increases blood pressure and heart rate, which is not a major concern in most cases. However, if people have underlying heart problems this increase can cause problems. Another side effect of ADHD medications that is a rarity is psychiatric problems. These issues may involve auditory hallucinations, paranoia, and mania, though it must be noted that only about 1in 1000 people or . 001% is affected in this way, and most often stems from preexisting psychiatric conditions (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). Drug abuse is another concern when treating ADHD, as stimulants such as Ritalin, and Adderall have the potential to be abused. However it must be noted also that untreated ADHD poses an increased risk of substance abuse (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). There are positive effects of the drugs that have been noted as well. One of the most encouraging comes from a study involving 25,000 ADHD subjects. This study found that the patients using the medication committed about a third less crimes. â€Å"Past international studies show up to two-thirds of young offenders and half the adult prison population screen positively for childhood ADHD, and many may still have symptoms as adults,† (Kelland, 2012, ). Seena Fazel a forensic psychiatrist at Oxford University, in Britain, stated that â€Å"medication led to a 32 percent reduction in crime rates in men, and a 41 percent reduction in crime rates in women,† (Kelland, 2012, ). Fazel’s colleague Paul Lichtenstein, of Karolinska Institute in Sweden, added that roughly 30 to 40 percent of long serving criminals have ADHD, and that the chances of recidivism (recommitting crimes) could be reduced by 30% by taking medication (Kelland, 2012, ). Most side effects associated with ADHD medications are not only minor, but also controllable. There are many ways in which subjects can effectively control or cope with emerging side effects. Trouble sleeping and loss of appetite are two of the most common side effects, and they are two of the most easily controlled as well. By adjusting the time which a subject takes their medication to avoid overlapping into meal time or sleep time, these two side effects can be effectively controlled. Chances for side effects such as headache and nausea emerging can be reduced similarly, since these side effects tend to stem from not eating enough, or sleeping enough, while on the medication. Some subjects complain of dizziness or irritability or mood swings, these side effects can best be dealt with by consulting one’s doctor, possibly changing dosage, or in some cases changing medications. Other side effects may not be eliminated, however there are methods to cope with them. One such minor side effect is dry mouth, subjects can drink more water or keep lozenges with them to counter this side effect. There are many ways to control or cope with the day-to-day side effects associated with ADHD medications, the key is finding what works best for you. Other more severe side effects known to be linked with ADHD medications, such as psychiatric problems or cardiovascular problems, affect a very small number of subjects and may be managed by changing medication dosage, or changing medication. All side effects that subjects experience should be brought to the attention of their doctor, so that together they can choose the best way to deal with them. In a worst case scenario untreated ADHD can result in elevated criminal activities, in a less severe example an untreated subject may have difficulty holding a job or dealing with day-to-day responsibilities. The side effects of not taking stimulant medications to treat ADHD are as real as the side effects that come with the drugs themselves. However the side effects that come with taking these medications can in most cases be controlled or coped with. Doctors have continued to prescribe meds like Adderall, Ritalin and Dexedrine because quite simply they work better than anything else. † Study reveals, (2006). As stated stimulant medication can overcome the symptoms associated with ADHD, which in turn can lead to a more prosperous life at work, school, and home. Adhd Medications Versus Side Effects free essay sample According to â€Å"ADHD is a problem† (2010), â€Å"ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed behavioral disorder of childhood. It affects about 3% 5% of school aged children. † In 2010 the World Health Organization (WHO) conducted a study that estimated that 3% to 4% of adults have ADHD. Of these it is estimated that between 8 and 10 million are undiagnosed, with millions more not receiving treatment (Van Pelt, 2010). Paul Lichtenstein of Swedens Karolinska Institute stated Its said that roughly 30 to 40 per cent of long-serving criminals have ADHD. † (Kelland, 2012). These statistics illustrate how severely ADHD can affect subject’s lives. Many are concerned about the side effects that come with taking stimulant medications used to treat ADHD. ADHD medications do indeed have side effects; however, the advantages of treatment generally outweigh the disadvantages of negative side effects. This can be seen by examining the symptoms associated with ADHD, and comparing them to the side effects of stimulant medication. Also examining the various ways in which the side effects can be dealt with. We will write a custom essay sample on Adhd Medications Versus Side Effects or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There are many symptoms linked with ADHD, these symptoms fall into three categories and can be used to diagnose this disorder. The first category is inattentiveness, or lack of attention, symptoms in this category, as implied, deal with the subject’s inability to focus. Examples of these symptoms are; 1) subject fails to give close attention to details, makes careless mistakes, and is often forgetful with regard to daily activities. ) Subject does not follow through with instructions, or can be easily distracted, resulting in failing to finish school work, chores, or duties in the workplace. 3) Subject does not seem to listen when spoken to directly. 4) Subject can have difficulty with organization of tasks and activities, often losing assignments or tools needed for tasks. The second category is hyperactivity; these symptoms can be seen in the actions of the subject. Examples of these symptoms are; 1) Subject fidgets with hands or feet, or squirms in their seat. ) Subject ru ns about or climbs in inappropriate situations, or leaves seat when remaining seated is expected. 3) Subject has difficulty playing quietly, often having an overabundance of energy, and tends to talk excessively. The third category of symptoms is impulsivity, or impulsive behavior, these symptoms seem to be combinations of the first two categories. Examples of these symptoms are; 1) Subject blurts out answers before questions have been completed. 2) Subject has difficulty awaiting their turn. ) Subject interrupts or intrudes upon others conversations (â€Å"ADHD is a problem†, 2012). Observation of combinations of these symptoms can lead to the diagnosis of ADHD. There are several different prescription medications used to treat ADHD in both children and adults. Prescription medications used for this treatment are generally stimulants, and are controlled substances. The five stimulant medications used for this treatment are; 1) Amphetamine-dextroamphetamine, otherwise known as Adderall. ) Dexmethylphenidate, otherwise known as Focalin. 3) Dextroamphetamine, otherwise known as Dexedrine, and Dextrostat. 4) Lisdexamfetamine, otherwise known as Vyvanse. 5) Methylphenidate, otherwise known as Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate, and Daytrana. There is a nonstimulant medication available called Atomoxetine, commonly called Strattera (â€Å"ADHD is a problem†, 2012). Stimulant medications used for ADHD cause increased levels of neurotransmitters, specifically Dopamine, and Norepinephrine within the prefrontal cortex (Arnsten, 2006). The levels of these two neurotransmitters are thought to be lower in children and adults with ADHD. The stimulant medications used for treatment of ADHD increase the production of these two neurotransmitters in order to reach normal levels within the subjects brain chemistry (Santa Maria, 12/30/11). It has been found that the best results from treatment included behavioral therapy, such as having a set schedule, eating a well balanced diet, limiting distractions in study and work areas, and getting enough sleep (â€Å"ADHD is a problem†, 2012). Behavior therapy combined with medication seems to provide the best results, allowing the subject to build upon the effects of the medication, and create a routine. There are many possible side effects included with these medications, some of these are rarer than others, while others still have positive effects. Many of the side effects that come with stimulant treatment are common and mild. One such side effect is trouble sleeping, the stimulant aspects of the drugs can make it hard to fall asleep. Loss of appetite is another common side effect. The stimulant medication tends to reduce appetite, and can cause weight loss. Weight loss is one side effect that people tend to like, however weight loss tends to be modest and the effects diminish over time (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). Dry mouth is another very common side effect. These first three side effects seem to be almost ensured when taking ADHD medication. Other side effects that, while still common and generally mild, are not guaranteed consist of headaches, nausea, dizziness, irritability and mood changes, and occasionally tics. The medications do not cause tics, instead they can sometimes bring underlying tics out, for example a tic from childhood may return (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). There are more severe side effects associated with the use of ADHD stimulant treatment, however these are much more rare, or case sensitive. For example, stimulant medication increases blood pressure and heart rate, which is not a major concern in most cases. However, if people have underlying heart problems this increase can cause problems. Another side effect of ADHD medications that is a rarity is psychiatric problems. These issues may involve auditory hallucinations, paranoia, and mania, though it must be noted that only about 1in 1000 people or . 001% is affected in this way, and most often stems from preexisting psychiatric conditions (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). Drug abuse is another concern when treating ADHD, as stimulants such as Ritalin, and Adderall have the potential to be abused. However it must be noted also that untreated ADHD poses an increased risk of substance abuse (If you have adult ADHD, 2012). There are positive effects of the drugs that have been noted as well. One of the most encouraging comes from a study involving 25,000 ADHD subjects. This study found that the patients using the medication committed about a third less crimes. â€Å"Past international studies show up to two-thirds of young offenders and half the adult prison population screen positively for childhood ADHD, and many may still have symptoms as adults,† (Kelland, 2012, ). Seena Fazel a forensic psychiatrist at Oxford University, in Britain, stated that â€Å"medication led to a 32 percent reduction in crime rates in men, and a 41 percent reduction in crime rates in women,† (Kelland, 2012, ). Fazel’s colleague Paul Lichtenstein, of Karolinska Institute in Sweden, added that roughly 30 to 40 percent of long serving criminals have ADHD, and that the chances of recidivism (recommitting crimes) could be reduced by 30% by taking medication (Kelland, 2012, ). Most side effects associated with ADHD medications are not only minor, but also controllable. There are many ways in which subjects can effectively control or cope with emerging side effects. Trouble sleeping and loss of appetite are two of the most common side effects, and they are two of the most easily controlled as well. By adjusting the time which a subject takes their medication to avoid overlapping into meal time or sleep time, these two side effects can be effectively controlled. Chances for side effects such as headache and nausea emerging can be reduced similarly, since these side effects tend to stem from not eating enough, or sleeping enough, while on the medication. Some subjects complain of dizziness or irritability or mood swings, these side effects can best be dealt with by consulting one’s doctor, possibly changing dosage, or in some cases changing medications. Other side effects may not be eliminated, however there are methods to cope with them. One such minor side effect is dry mouth, subjects can drink more water or keep lozenges with them to counter this side effect. There are many ways to control or cope with the day-to-day side effects associated with ADHD medications, the key is finding what works best for you. Other more severe side effects known to be linked with ADHD medications, such as psychiatric problems or cardiovascular problems, affect a very small number of subjects and may be managed by changing medication dosage, or changing medication. All side effects that subjects experience should be brought to the attention of their doctor, so that together they can choose the best way to deal with them. In a worst case scenario untreated ADHD can result in elevated criminal activities, in a less severe example an untreated subject may have difficulty holding a job or dealing with day-to-day responsibilities. The side effects of not taking stimulant medications to treat ADHD are as real as the side effects that come with the drugs themselves. However the side effects that come with taking these medications can in most cases be controlled or coped with. Doctors have continued to prescribe meds like Adderall, Ritalin and Dexedrine because quite simply they work better than anything else. † Study reveals, (2006). As stated stimulant medication can overcome the symptoms associated with ADHD, which in turn can lead to a more prosperous life at work, school, and home.

Mandarin Chinese Christmas Vocabulary

Mandarin Chinese Christmas Vocabulary Christmas  is not an official holiday in China, so most offices, schools, and shops remain open. Nonetheless, many  people still get into the holiday spirit during the Yuletide, and all the trappings of Christmas can be found in China,  Hong  Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.   Additionally, many people in recent years have begun celebrating Christmas in China. You can see Christmas decorations in department stores, and the custom of exchanging gifts is becoming more popular- especially with the younger generation. Many also decorate their homes with Christmas trees and ornaments. So, learning Mandarine Chinese Christmas vocabulary can be helpful if you plan to visit the region. Two Ways to Say Christmas There are two ways to say â€Å"Christmas† in Mandarin Chinese. The links provide a transliteration of the word or phrase (called  pinyin), followed the word or phrase written in  traditional Chinese  characters, followed by the same word or phrase printed in simplified Chinese characters. Click on the links to bring up an audio file and hear how to pronounce the words. The two ways to say Christmas in Mandarin Chinese are  shà ¨ng dn jià © (è â€"è ªâ€¢Ã§ ¯â‚¬ traditional Ã¥Å" £Ã¨ ¯Å¾Ã¨Å â€š simplified) or  yÄ“ dn jià © (è€ ¶Ã¨ ªâ€¢Ã§ ¯â‚¬ trad è€ ¶Ã¨ ¯Å¾Ã¨Å â€š simplified). In each of the phrases, the final two characters (dn jià ©) are the same. Dn refers to birth, and jià © means â€Å"holiday.† The first character of Christmas can be either shà ¨ng or yÄ“. Shà ¨ng translates as â€Å"saint† and yÄ“ is a phonetic, which is used for Jesus yÄ“ sÃ… « (è€ ¶Ã§ ©Å' traditional è€ ¶Ã§ ¨ £ simplified). Shà ¨ng dn jià © means â€Å"the birth of a saint holiday† and yÄ“ dn jià © means â€Å"the birth of Jesus holiday.† Shà ¨ng dn jià © is the more popular of the two phrases. Whenever you see shà ¨ng dn, though, remember that you can also use yÄ“ dn instead. Mandarin Chinese Christmas Vocabulary There are many other Christmas-related words and phrases in Mandarin Chinese, from Merry Christmas to poinsettia and even gingerbread house. In the table, the English word is given first, followed by the pinyan (transliteration), and then the traditional and simplified spellings in Chinese. Click the pinyan  listings to hear how each word or phrase is pronounced. English Pinyin Traditional Simplified Christmas shng dn ji Christmas y dn ji Christmas eve shng dn y Christmas eve ping n y Merry Christmas shng dn kui l Christmas tree shng dn sh Candy Cane gui zhng tng Christmas presents shng dn l w Stocking shng dn w Poinsettia shng dn hng Gingerbread house jing bng w Christmas card shng dn k Santa Claus shng dn lo rn Sleigh xu qio Reindeer m l Christmas carol shng dn g Caroling bo ji yn Angel tin sh Snowman xu rn Celebrating Christmas in China and the Region While most Chinese opt to overlook Christmas’s religious roots, a sizable minority do head to church for services in a variety of languages, including Chinese, English, and French. There are  approximately 70 million practicing Christians in China as of December 2017, according to  the Beijinger, a monthly entertainment guide and website based in Chinas capital. The figure represents only 5 percent of the countrys total population of 1.3 billion, but its still large enough to make an impact. Christmas services are held at an array of state-run churches in China and at houses of worship throughout Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. International schools and some embassies and consulates are also closed on Dec. 25 in China. Christmas Day (Dec. 25) and Boxing Day (Dec. 26) are public holidays in Hong Kong, so government offices and businesses are closed. Macau recognizes Christmas as a holiday and most businesses are closed. In Taiwan, Christmas coincides with Constitution Day (è ¡Å'æ† ²Ã§ ´â‚¬Ã¥ ¿ µÃ¦â€" ¥). Taiwan used to observe Dec. 25 as a day off, but currently, as of March 2018, Dec. 25 is a regular working day in Taiwan.

Reflective Learning Nursing Personal Statement

Reflective Learning Nursing - Personal Statement Example Discussion During the actual encounter with the patient, I had to make the patient comfortable by introducing myself, and telling her I was her nurse, asking how the patient feels prior to inviting her to sit down and giving her instructions, with eye contact while we talk. I made sure that I was attentive, not only listening, but also mentally taking note of the patient’s body gestures, facial expression, and fears, if any. Through these gestures towards the patient, I was able to make her feel relaxed and comfortable (Tollefson, 2010). During the interview establishing identity of the patient and the reason for the visit, I had to note how the patient feels and limit the question and answer on matters with regards to her health, current condition and history. This way, I was able to maintain professionalism as well as make the patient feel safe and respected (Kuiper and Pesut, 2004). I also noted if there were communication problems, such as language barrier, or communicatio n discomfort on the part of the patient. Fortunately, the patient was easy to talk with. Throughout the interview, I encouraged her to talk about her health issue or issues but avoiding much prodding as well as repetition of topic. I was able to accomplish this by taking notes on her answers and with my focus on her alone. Where there was unclear information given by the patient, I had to paraphrase and ask through a question answerable by yes or no for confirmation. After sufficient information was provided by the patient, I summarize the information and confirm from her if the information was right. I also checked if the patient had identification band in order to compare data provided. I then proceed to take the vital signs but I failed to explain to the patient why these were needed. After getting her consent to perform the procedures, I washed my hands. I had to ask every step of the process if the patient felt comfortable, and make the right adjustment if not such as the posit ion of the chair, or even the air conditioning. Throughout, I maintained eye contact. I first took the temperature. I committed a slight error by not immediately taking note of her temperature or recorded in her chart. In taking the pulse rate, I had to prepare the equipment, prepare patient about the procedure, provide privacy, identify the landmarks, palpate lightly with finger pads in identifying pulse, then note the rhythm and strength. I counted then calculated the rate per minute, and made sure to note whether or not there was irregularity. I terminated the encounter, then replaced and disposed the equipment, wash my hands based on standard precautions, and then filled up the form or chart of the patient (Daly et al, 2006). Where there was irregularity of pulse, I had to inform the patient of my role. In taking the blood pressure, the same procedure of routine hand wash was undertaken. This will ensure sanitation and safety. I then check on the patient documentation then the p atient status. If the patient is new or whom I have not established familiarity, yet, I introduce myself and asks for her identity, too, such as how may I call her (O’Toole, 2010). Then, I informed her procedure to be done and why it is needed. I then ask for consent to perfo

The relationship between gender differences and the 'double bind' as Essay

The relationship between gender differences and the 'double bind' as important drivers of the glass ceiling in leadership - Essay Example Where higher thresholds of women leadership are presented, gender differences in leadership are less significant; however, where the glass ceiling or barriers to leadership are significant and are placed at lower thresholds, the gender differences in leadership are very wide. This study is on gender and leadership, specifically focusing on the relationship between gender differences and the ‘double bind’ being important drivers of the glass ceiling in leadership. Body It is important to understand first the concept of the glass ceiling. This term was first used in the 1980s mostly to refer to the barriers against women and also minorities in reaching leadership or corporate manager roles (Johns, 2013). Most governments have acknowledged that despite their best efforts to legally secure equal rights and opportunities for men and women in leadership roles, women and minorities still occupy only a small percentage of management positions and roles. Artificial barriers are s till very much preventing them from gaining more ground as leaders (Johns, 2013). In the US, a Glass Ceiling Act was even established in order to impact how businesses are filling in management positions, how developmental leadership skills are being enhanced for advancement into these positions, the compensation programmes in the workplace, and the creation of annual awards for excellence. A Glass Ceiling Commission established in 1995 identified barriers against women securing management positions. These barriers included societal, political, and internal business practices and structures (Johns, 2013). Societal barriers included prejudice, cultural, and ethnicity-based differences. Governmental barriers include the lack of sustained monitoring for compliance, weak enforcement of provisions, as well as poor recruitment and outreach issues (Johns, 2013). Companies often prefer to promote the current employees they have, not wanting to add women, even those who are highly qualified into their pool of managers. Even when installed in managerial positions, these women are still subjected to barriers relating to the styles of gender communication, socialization practices, as well as behaviour (Rajah et al., 2011). Moreover, career course barriers also serve as barriers on women seeking managerial positions. These barriers include limited guidance and mentoring opportunities, dead-end positions, different assessment practices for men and women, and difficulties in accessing informal levels of communication (Zimmerman et al., 2008). The barriers discussed above are still persistent today. The social support system for instance prevents women from gaining leadership positions, especially in relation to their work-family conditions as governments are not providing institutional support for working mothers (Johns, 2013). Women therefore are significantly challenged in balancing the demands between work and home (US Congress Joint Economic Committee, n.d.). A report fr om the US Congress Joint Economic Committee (n.d.) also indicated that the US does not grant incentive for parents, especially women seeking parental leaves as much as other members of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The US only grants as much as 12 weeks, while other countries grant up to 18 weeks of parental leave (Johns, 2013). Limited flexibility in work conditions is a major factor holding women back in their work advancement. American women ordinarily take on a primary role in

What Makes Subcultures Deviant Cultural Studies Essay

What Makes Subcultures Deviant Cultural Studies Essay This paper will look to answer the question What are subcultures and what makes them deviant? It will then go on to examine and explore how subcultures became apparent and give descriptions of two different subcultures within society (specifically Punk and Rave). To conclude there will be a brief discussion regarding the specific subcultures, their members and the culture they belong to. In order to assess these subcultures it is first only right to define what a subculture is. The definition given by Dictionary of Sociology, Abercrombie (et al) states a subculture is A system of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and lifestyles of a social group within a largerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦society or organisationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Most commonly applied to deviant or youth cultures that develop a culture opposed to the dominant culture. Hall et al (1976) started to examine why and how young members of society felt the need to form groups.   Youth is a relatively new term for Britain, as it only really came into existence after the Second World War. Children were no longer sent straight out to work and the emphasis moved more from work to play and growing up with ease, Youth appeared as an emergent category in post-war Britain, one of the most striking and visible manifestations of social change in the period (Hall et al 1976,). Prior to World War 2 there was always a strong ideology, a way of life to which everyone conformed. They held similar values and common goals. The emergence of subcultures challenged this. The majority of subcultures can usually be defined by specific music, with the exception of few, such as football hooliganism. The subcultures explored below can predominantly be distinguished by their music. It would be fair to assume that both the subcultures explored will have had some impact on todays university students. Either their own lives or the lives of their parents surely have been influenced by one of these subcultures. Punks In order to grasp what the punk subculture consists of it is imperative to understand where punk came from and the history surrounding it, as well as how its followers dressed, their ideals, music tastes and attitudes. There are different types of punk examples being Anarocho punk and Oi! Punk. The Punk philosophy addressed many issues including individualism, anti-authoritarianism, political anarchism, and free thought amongst others. Punk was embraced by individuals usually ranging in age from the late teen years to mid or late twenties. Punks can be perceived as members of a deviant subculture due to many factors, for example their musical tastes, dress sense and political views to name but a few. Each of these issues are to be raised in their own right, below. Within the United Kingdom (UK) the punk scene emerged in the late 1970s. As punk was somewhat of an underground movement it is impossible to state when it arrived in the UK. Cahill (1988) states that most would agree that it was sometime in 1975, Britain was suffering from a recession at the time, and in times of extreme hardship, people look for an outlet to their anger Punk gave way for young people to make their frustrations known. They Angela-Marie Gibson had just gone through times of economic decline, so un-employment was rife; add to this the normal feelings that people of this age experience, punk seemed the answer. Marsh (1977) termed Punk dole queue rock. Punk saw bands such as the Clash, The Sex Pistols and The Ramones emerging into British society. Music of this kind was often very anti or intolerant in its lyrics for example regarding parents or notions of love. Then there are other types of music to consider such as the Jam and Sham 69. The Jam are not immediately thought of as an Oi! band, but their lyrics contain political themes which is also applicable to many bands of the genre. The members of the typical punk subculture made their allegiance clear in the way the dressed. A typical punk could be seen sporting light jeans, leather jackets, Doc Martins, ripped t-shirts and, maybe, their dyed hair (some punks associated with Neo-Nazi movements had skin heads). It could be argued that the social class of the people who made up the punk subculture were generally working class, but it has to be considered that punk also consisted of a minority of middle class students who simply enjoyed the punk look, but did not conform to all its trappings. The members of the punk sub culture in Britain are predominantly white. The word punk often goes hand in hand political views. Not all punks developed the same political standing but it should be mentioned that views such as anarchy and neo-Nazism are attached to the punk subculture. The National Front picked up such punk movements as Oi! and tried to use punk to their own advantage. One must mention musical influences such as Skrewdriver, whos lead singer Ian Stewart Donaldson was instrumental in setting up Blood Honour the activist movement widely linked with the National Front. Punks could be seen as quite confused individuals as they wore clothing depicting the Union Jack, yet they sang along with The Sex Pistols and their lyrics of anarchy in the British society it was an alien essence, a foreign body which implicitly threatened mainstream British culture from within and as such it resonated with punks adopted values anarchy, surrender and decline' (Hebdige, 1979, p64) Rave The rave subculture seems to be different to punk in the fact that its follows do not seem to be constrained by social class or political view points. Rave sprang to life and made its way from Ibiza to Britain in the late 1980s and early 1990s.. It is termed by the Guardian newspaper as The fight for the right to party. Initially no one from this subculture was against any figures of authority; they basically wanted to experience a good time with their peers in an environment that had never been experienced before. This did however bring with it violence between the Police and the ravers Collin (1997) is quoted as saying rave is the most spectacular and enduring British youth movement of the twentieth century. The origins of rave can be traced back to the United States of America and the gay clubs in Chicago in the form of House music. Firstly it is imperative to ascertain what it is we are examining. Initially this paper will look at the clothes, attitudes and beliefs of the members of the rave subculture as well as the history that surrounds it. This specific subculture is closely connected with illegal drug taking and (initially) illegal venues where young people could join together to dance, party and take drugs. The countries licensing laws at this time where such that traditional nightclubs closed at 1 or 2 am. The members of the rave community wanted to party on into the night, hence the venues that hosted these events being illegal. It could be argued that the term rave was first seen in Britain in the 1950s and was seen again briefly with the Mods. However, it was the illegal warehouse parties that gave rave the reputation it possessed in the early to mid 1990s. Rave appeared whilst Britain was approaching a state of great consumer spending and the short housing boom of the late 80s was underway. In Government Margaret Thatcher was striving to ensure the British public got her strong messages regarding a capitalist society. She was attempting to portray her vision of every man being responsible for himself, On the 23rd September 1987 she was famously quoted as saying there is no such thing as society www.margaretthatcher.org. The followers of rave could be spotted in their unique clothing attire. This mainly consisted of layered clothing (which could easily be removed once they get hot), young childrens dummies, glo-sticks, whistles and smiley faced t-shirts. The males can be seen sporting tracksuits or baggy jeans whilst the females took to wearing bikinis and short neon coloured dresses. They often related everyday things to drug abuse and depicted this on their clothing. Slogans such as Can I have an E please Bob? were printed on t-shirts. They showed Bob Holness (famous for his long reign as host of blockbuster)  holding an ecstasy tablet. It is argued that at most, if not all gatherings that this subculture attended illegal drugs would be rife predominantly ecstasy, amphetamine, cocaine or LSD. In 1994 the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act was passed. This Act was influenced directly by the events at Castlemorton, where an estimated 40,000 revellers spent a week partying at an event held at the common. Castlemorton was the final nail in the coffin of the unlicensed event (South, 1999) The Act specifically defines music to include sounds wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive beats. This gave greater powers to the Police to act upon raves. The most publicised changes in the Act are Sections 34-39, 54-59 and 60. These changes gave the Police the power to stop an outside gathering of more than 100 people. There was highly publicised conflict in the late 1980s between Police and members of the rave subculture. This, coupled with the knowledge that ravers embraced illegal substances would lead many to think that the followers of rave have little or no respect for the police or the law. Over 60,000 youths marched against the Criminal Justice Bill changes. They were all not from the rave subculture, but they all had the common belief that the changes were not just. The views of the rave sub culture may be seen as polar opposites to that of punk. Followers of rave put emphasis on peace, love, openess, unity and respect for each other. This is argued to be down to the effects of the drugs the ravers participate in. The rave subculture has moved on vastly since the early 1990s. The rave subculture now takes place in most towns and cities every weekend in legitimate venues that adhere to licencing laws. It is now called club culture and is part of everyday life for many. The members may have adapted their clothing to more mainstream atire. It could also be said that it is the rave subculture that has normalised drug use once again for the youth of Britian. It has certianly brought illegal drugs to the forefront. Faces such as that of Leah Betts will be engrained on the minds of many British citizens, predominantly those is their 30s. To quote Cohen (1972) deviance is created by societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance and by applying those rules to particular persons and labelling them as outsiders. So, if a person does not share the same morals and belief systems as the majority that then makes them deviant, therefore they have no option but to seek solace in the arms of a subculture. Looking at these subcultures I conclude that it could be argued they were influenced by the rising number of family breakdowns. Could it be that the youth of these eras were looking for a sense of belonging, and the rave and punk subculture gave them what they craved? The leader of the country at the time (Margaret Thatcher) was thought to be trying to in still into the British people that society was not important maybe subcultures fulfilled its followers with a sense of belonging and security? If the people were being lead to believe that wider society was not as important as it had been then can a subculture really exist, as there is no common goal or majority rule. It also must be pointed out that with the vast amount of media coverage both of these subcultures received from the newspapers and television it could also be argued that they were the norm they had so much coverage that to attach a deviant label to them is wrong. Maybe due to the fact that we have only seen these deviations from the norm over a relatively short period of time (Post World War 2) it is still inconceivable to some members of society that freedom to express ourselves should be embraced, not shunned?

Power Influence Approach

Power-influence leadership assumes the cause and effect relationship between leaders and followers only flows trom anagement to subordinate (Yuki, 2010, p. 4). For example, a manager Instructs his employee to pay an invoice, and the employee does as told. or employees attend an ethics seminar because the executives mandate it. Exercising power-influence can ensure adherence to internal policies like safety, dress codes, and hours of employment. It can also ensure adherence to federal laws like the provisions In the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. The power-influence leadership approach enables a leader to influence the behaviors and attitudes of followers (Yuki, 2010, p. ). It is effective in managing and accomplishing tasks as a leader gives instructions that other follow. Powerlnfluence can sway people's thoughts and opinions, which can be beneficial In terms of innovative ideas and more efficient methods of operations. It is especially effective for those who resist change even if it will lea d to progress. The power- influence method of leadership has its drawbacks as well. Some individuals use ‘Of2 Torce ana Intlmlaatlon to accompllsn certaln oDJectlves.I ney may use tnelr tltle or osition to pressure others to comply, and even though employees may obey at first, such coercion eventually leads to resistance and the undermining of authority (Alyn, 2009). For example, a manager may tell a direct report that if he does not complete a given stack of work, his quarterly review will reflect it. This is a drastic example of the negative effect of power-influence, but it does well to demonstrate how a manager can use coercion as a source of â€Å"motivation. Using power to accomplish activities in an organization is a common practice among managers and executives. In fact, prior to 2011, management at Jack in the Box, Inc. depended on the power-influence approach to complete objectives. The organization believed employees required specific instruction, so management inf luenced subordinates and coworkers through the use of power. It is important to note that few individuals abused this power, but as the nature of the business changed, so did its leadership approach.In 2011, the executives of Jack in the Box worked to change the company's culture from one of power to one that focused on individual roles, achievements, and support. Management encouraged employees to share ideas, to question and challenge methods of operation, and to take initiative and responsibility for one's work. The â€Å"you do what I say' mentality was not the attitude the executives wanted management to express or employees to feel. Instead, the company wanted to nurture leaders to make the organization stronger and more cohesive.Power and one-directional instruction from management to subordinates prevented innovative opportunities and fresher ways of thinking, which ultimately inhibited the company's ossibilities. The new culture placed management and direct reports on more level ground, and the open communication instilled trust and a sense of unity among employees of all levels. The power-influence approach in studying leadership examines the role that power plays in influencing others' actions, attitudes, and beliefs. Its use can have both positive and negative effects in the workplace, depending on the leader's intentions. Power is viewed as important not only for influencing subordinates, but also for influencing peers, superiors, and people utside the organization, such as clients and suppliers† (Yuki, 2010, p. 14). It is important for leaders to remember that others look to them for instruction, inspiration, and direction. With such power come certain responsibilities and expectations not to abuse it.